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Aq Qoyunlu آق قویونلو
1378–1501
The Aq Qoyunlu confederation at its greatest extent
Capital	Diyarbakır (1453–1471) Tabriz (1468 – January 6, 1478)
Common languages	Azerbaijani (poetry)[a][1] Arabic Persian
Religion	Sunni Islam[2]
Government	Monarchy
Ruler
• 1378–1435	Kara Yuluk Osman
• 1501–1501	Murad ibn Ya'qub
Historical era	Medieval
• Established	1378
• Disestablished	1501
Preceded by Succeeded by Kara Koyunlu Safavid dynasty

The Aq Qoyunlu or Ak Koyunlu, also called the White Sheep Turkomans (Persian: آق‌ قویونلو‎ Āq Quyūnlū; Azerbaijani: Ağqoyunlular/آغ‌قویونلولار; Turkish: Ak Koyunlu), was a Persianate^[3][4]Sunni^[2]Oghuz Turkic tribal confederation that ruled parts of present-day Eastern Turkey from 1378 to 1501, and in their last decades also ruled Armenia, Azerbaijan, most part of Iran, and Iraq.^[5]

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History of Turkey
Prehistory Prehistory of Anatolia Palaeolithic Anatolia c. 500,000– 10,000 BC Mesolithic Anatolia c. 11,000– 9,000 BC Neolithic Anatolia c. 8,000– 5,500 BC
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Iron Age Diauehi 1200–800 BC Neo-Hittites 1200–800 BC Phrygia 1200–700 BC Caria 1150–547 BC Doris 1100–560 BC Aeolis 1000–560 BC Tuwanuwa 1000–700 BC Ionia 1000–545 BC Neo-Assyrian empire 911–609 BC Urartu 859–595/585 BC Lydia 685–547 BC Median Empire 678-549 BC Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 BC–539 BC
Classical Age Classical Anatolia Classical Thrace Achaemenid Empire 559–331 BC Kingdom of Alexander the Great 334–301 BC Kingdom of Cappadocia 322-130 BC Antigonids 306–168 BC Seleucid Empire 305–64 BC Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 BC Kingdom of Pontus 302–64 BC Bithynia 297–74 BC Kingdom of Pergamon 282–129 BC Galatia 281–64 BC Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD Armenian Empire 190 BC–428 AD Roman Republic 133–27 BC Kingdom of Commagene 163 BC–72 AD Roman Empire 27 BC–330 AD Sassanian Empire 224–651 AD
Medieval Age Medieval Anatolia Byzantine Empire (330–1453) Rashidun Caliphate (637–656) Great Seljuk State (1037–1194) Danishmends (1071–1178) Anatolian beyliks (1081-1423) Sultanate of Rum (1077–1307) Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (1078–1375) County of Edessa (1098–1150) Artuqids (1101–1409) Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461) Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261) Latin Empire (1204–1261) Ilkhanate (1256–1335) Kara Koyunlu (1375–1468) Ak Koyunlu (1378–1501)
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Mythological history Pishdadian dynasty Kayanian dynasty
Ancient period BC Prehistory of Iran Ancient Times–4000 Kura–Araxes culture 3400–2000 Proto-Elamite 3200–2700 Jiroft culture c. 3100 – c. 2200 Elam 2700–539 Akkadian Empire 2400–2150 Lullubi culture c. 2300-700 Kassites c. 1500 – c. 1155 Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Mannaeans 850–616
Imperial period Median Empire 678–550 BC (Scythian Kingdom) 652–625 BC Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 BC–539 BC Achaemenid Empire 550–330 BC Kingdom of Armenia 331 BC – 428 AD Atropatene 320s BC – 3rd century AD Kingdom of Cappadocia 320s BC – 17 AD Seleucid Empire 312–63 BC Kingdom of Pontus 281–62 BC Fratarakas 3rd-century BC Kings of Persis 3rd-century BC – c. 222 AD Parthian Empire 247 BC – 224 AD Characene 141 BC – 222 AD Indo-Parthian Kingdom 19 – 240 Sasanian Empire 224 – 651 Zarmihrids 6th century – 785 Qarinvandids 550s – 11th century
Medieval period Rashidun Caliphate 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Dabuyids 642–760 Bavandids 651–1349 Masmughans of Damavand 651–760 Paduspanids 665–1598 Justanids 791 – 11th century Alid dynasties 864 – 14th century Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Samanid Empire 819–999 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215 Sajid dynasty 889–929 Sallarid dynasty 919–1062 Ziyarid dynasty 930–1090 Ilyasids 932–968 Buyid dynasty 934–1062 Ghaznavid dynasty 977–1186 Kakuyids 1008–1141 Nasrid dynasty 1029–1236 Shabankara 1030–1355 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231 Eldiguzids 1135–1225 Atabegs of Yazd 1141–1319 Salghurids 1148–1282 Hazaraspids 1155–1424 Pishkinid dynasty 1155–1231 Qutlugh-Khanids 1223-1306 Mihrabanids 1236–1537 Kurt dynasty 1244–1396 Ilkhanate Empire 1256–1335 Chobanid dynasty 1335–1357 Muzaffarid dynasty 1335–1393 Jalairid dynasty 1337–1376 Sarbadars 1337–1376 Injuids 1335–1357 Afrasiyab dynasty 1349–1504 Marashis 1359–1596 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Karkiya dynasty 1370s–1592 Kara Koyunlu 1406–1468 Aq Qoyunlu 1468–1508
Early modern period Safavid dynasty 1501–1736 (Hotak dynasty) 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1796 Talysh Khanate 1747–1826 Zand dynasty 1751–1794 Qajar dynasty 1789–1925
Modern period Pahlavi dynasty 1925–1979 Interim Government 1979 Islamic Republic 1979–present
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History

According to chronicles from the Byzantine Empire, the Aq Qoyunlu are first attested in the district of Bayburt south of the Pontic mountains from at least the 1340s,^[6] and most of their leaders, including the dynasty's founder, Qara Osman,^[7] married Byzantine princesses.^[8]

The Aq Qoyunlu Turkomans first acquired land in 1402, when Timur granted them all of Diyar Bakr in present-day Turkey. For a long time, the Aq Qoyunlu were unable to expand their territory, as the rival Kara Koyunlu or "Black Sheep Turkomans" kept them at bay. However, this changed with the rule of Uzun Hasan, who defeated the Black Sheep Turkoman leader Jahān Shāh in 1467.

After the defeat of a Timurid leader, Abu Sa'id, Uzun Hasan was able to take Baghdad along with territories around the Persian Gulf. He expanded into Iran as far east as Khorasan. However, around this time, the Ottoman Empire sought to expand eastwards, a serious threat that forced the Aq Qoyunlu into an alliance with the Karamanids of central Anatolia.

As early as 1464, Uzun Hasan had requested military aid from one of the Ottoman Empire's strongest enemies, Venice. Despite Venetian promises, this aid never arrived and, as a result, Uzun Hassan was defeated by the Ottomans at the Battle of Otlukbeli in 1473,^[9] though this did not destroy the Aq Qoyunlu.

When Uzun Hasan died early in 1478, he was succeeded by his son Khalil Mirza, but the latter was defeated by a confederation under his younger brother Ya'qub at the Battle of Khoy in July.^[10]

Ya'qub, who reigned from 1478 to 1490, sustained the dynasty for a while longer. However, during the first four years of his reign there were seven pretenders to the throne who had to be put down.^[11] Following Ya'qub's death, civil war again erupted, the Aq Qoyunlus destroyed themselves from within, and they ceased to be a threat to their neighbors.

Historical Hasankeyf in Aq Qoyunlu territory.

The early Safavids, who were followers of the Safaviyya religious order, began to undermine the allegiance of the Aq Qoyunlu. The Safavids and the Aq Qoyunlu met in battle in the city of Nakhchivan in 1501 and the Safavid leader Ismail I forced the Aq Qoyunlu to withdraw.^[12]

In his retreat from the Safavids, the Aq Qoyunlu leader Alwand destroyed an autonomous state of the Aq Qoyunlu in Mardin. The last Aq Qoyunlu leader, Murad, brother of Alwand, was also defeated by the same Safavid leader. Though Murād briefly established himself in Baghdad in 1501, he soon withdrew back to Diyar Bakr, signaling the end of the Aq Qoyunlu rule.

Governance

The leaders of Aq Qoyunlu were from the Begundur or Bayandur clan of the Oghuz Turks^[13] and were considered descendants of the semi-mythical founding father of the Oghuz, Oghuz Khan.^[14] The Bayandurs behaved like statesmen rather than warlords and gained the support of the merchant and feudal classes of Transcaucasia (present day Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia).^[14]

With the conquest of Iran, not only did the Aq Qoyunlu center of power shift eastward, but Iranian influences were soon brought to bear on their method of government and their culture.^[15] In the Iranian provinces Uzun Hassan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations.^[16] There were only four top civil posts, all held by Iranians, in Uzun Hassan's time: those of the vizier, who headed the great council (divan); the mostawfi al-mamalek, who was in charge of the financial administration; the mohrdar, who affixed the state seal; and the marakur "stable master", who looked after the royal court.^[15]

In letters from the Ottoman Sultans, when addressing the kings of Aq Qoyunlu, such titles as Arabic: ملك الملوك الأيرانية‎ "King of Iranian Kings", Arabic: سلطان السلاطين الإيرانية‎ "Sultan of Iranian Sultans", Persian: شاهنشاه ایران خدیو عجم‎ Shāhanshāh-e Irān Khadiv-e Ajam "Shahanshah of Iran and Ruler of Persia", Jamshid shawkat va Fereydun rāyat va Dārā derāyat "Powerful like Jamshid, flag of Fereydun and wise like Darius" have been used.^[17] Uzun Hassan also held the title Padishah-i Irān "Padishah of Iran",^[18] which was re-adopted again in the Safavid times through his distaff grandson Ismail I, founder of the Safavid Empire.

Aq Qoyunlu Ahmed Bey

Aq Qoyunlu Castle in Diyâr-ı Bekir.

Amidst the struggle for power between Uzun Hasan's grandsons Baysungur (son of Yaqub) and Rustam (son of Maqsud), their cousin Ahmed Bey appeared on the stage. Ahmed Bey was the son of Uzun Hasan's eldest son Uğurlu Muhammad, who, in 1475, escaped to the Ottoman Empire, where the sultan, Mehmed the Conqueror, received Uğurlu Muhammad with kindness and gave him his daughter in marriage, of whom Ahmed Bey was born.^[19]

According to Hasan Rumlu's Ahsan al-tavarikh, in 1496-7, Hasan Ali Tarkhani went to the Ottoman Empire to tell Sultan Bayezid II that Azerbaijan and Persian Iraq were defenceless and suggested that Ahmed Bey, heir to that kingdom, should be sent there with Ottoman troops. Beyazid agreed to this idea, and by May 1497 Ahmad Bey faced Rustam near Araxes and defeated him.^[19]

See also

• List of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu


• Turkmen invasions of Georgia


• 
  Diarbakriya, the most important primary source about the dynasty.

Notes

References

Sources

• Bosworth, Clifford (1996) The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual (2nd ed.) Columbia University Press, New York,
  ISBN 0-231-10714-5
  


• Morby, John (2002) Dynasties of the World: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook (2nd ed.) Oxford University Press, Oxford, England,
  ISBN 0-19-860473-4
  


• Woods, John E. (1999) The Aqquyunlu: Clan, Confederation, Empire (2nd ed.) University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City,
  ISBN 0-87480-565-1
  


• 
  Javadi, H.; Burrill, K. (May 24, 2012). "AZERBAIJAN x. Azeri Turkish Literature". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
  


• 
  Eagles, Jonathan (2014). Stephen the Great and Balkan Nationalism: Moldova and Eastern European History. I.B. Tauris.
  


• 
  Thomas, David; Chesworth, John A., eds. (2015). Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History:Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa and South America. Vol. 7. Brill.