Viral disease
















Viral disease
Classification and external resources
Specialty infectiology
MeSH D014777
[edit on Wikidata]

A viral disease (or viral infection or infectious disease), occurs when an organism's body is invaded by pathogenic viruses, and infectious virus particles (virions) attach to and enter susceptible cells.[1]




Contents






  • 1 Structural characteristics


    • 1.1 Useful rules of thumb


    • 1.2 Clinical characteristics


    • 1.3 Notes




  • 2 Diagnosis and treatment


  • 3 See also


  • 4 References





Structural characteristics


Basic structural characteristics, such as genome type, virion shape and replication site, generally share the same features among virus species within the same family.


There are five double-stranded DNA families: three are non enveloped (Adenoviridae, Papillomaviridae and Polyomaviridae) and two are enveloped (Herpesviridae and Poxviridae). All of the non-enveloped families have icosahedral capsids.


There is one family of partly double-stranded DNA viruses: Hepadnaviridae. These viruses are enveloped.


There is one family of single-stranded DNA viruses that infect humans: Parvoviridae. These viruses are non-enveloped.


There are seven positive single-stranded RNA families: three non enveloped (Astroviridae, Caliciviridae and Picornaviridae) and four enveloped (Coronoviridae, Flaviviridae, Retroviridae and Togaviridae). All the non-enveloped families have icosahedral nucleocapsids.


There are six negative single-stranded RNA families: Arenaviridae, Bunyaviridae, Filoviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Paramyxoviridae and Rhabdoviridae. All are enveloped with helical nucleocapsids.


There is one family with a double-stranded RNA genome: Reoviridae.


There is one additional virus (Hepatitis D virus) which has not yet been assigned to a family but is clearly distinct from the other families infecting humans.


There is one family and one genus of viruses known to infect humans that have not been associated with disease: the family Anelloviridae and the genus Dependovirus. Both of these taxa are non-enveloped single-stranded DNA viruses.



Useful rules of thumb


Among the human infecting families there are a number of rules that may assist physicians and medical microbiologists/virologists.


As a general rule, DNA viruses replicate within the nucleus while RNA viruses replicate within the cytoplasm. Exceptions are known to this rule: poxviruses replicate within the cytoplasm and orthomyxoviruses and hepatitis D virus (RNA viruses) replicate within the nucleus.


Four families have segmented genomes: Bunyaviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Arenaviridae and Reoviridae (acronym BOAR). All are RNA viruses.


Three families are transmitted almost exclusively by arthropods: Bunyavirus, Flavivirus and Togavirus. Some Reoviruses are transmitted from arthropod vectors as well. All are RNA viruses.[2]


Only one family of enveloped viruses causes gastroenteritis (Coronaviridae). All other viruses associated with gastroenteritis are non enveloped.


These are tables of the clinically most important[3] viruses.






















































































































































Comparison table of clinically important virus families and species
Family
Baltimore group
 Important species
envelopment

Adenoviridae
Group I (dsDNA)[3][4]
Adenovirus[3][4]
 non-enveloped[3][4]

Herpesviridae
Group I (dsDNA)[3][4]
Herpes simplex, type 1, Herpes simplex, type 2, Varicella-zoster virus, Epstein–Barr virus, Human cytomegalovirus, Human herpesvirus, type 8[5][6][7]
 enveloped[3][4]

Papillomaviridae
Group I (dsDNA)[3][8]
Human papillomavirus[3][8]
 non-enveloped[3][8]

Polyomaviridae
Group I (dsDNA)[3][9]
BK virus, JC virus[3][9]
 non-enveloped[3][9]

Poxviridae
Group I (dsDNA)[3][4]
Smallpox[3][4]
 enveloped[3][4]

Hepadnaviridae
Group VII (dsDNA-RT)[3][10]
Hepatitis B virus[3][4]
 enveloped[3][4]

Parvoviridae
Group II (ssDNA)[3][4]
Parvovirus B19[3][4]
 non-enveloped[3][4]

Astroviridae
Group IV (positive-sense ssRNA)[11]
Human astrovirus[4]
 non-enveloped[4]

Caliciviridae
Group IV (positive-sense ssRNA)[12]
Norwalk virus[4]
 non-enveloped[4]

Picornaviridae
Group IV (positive-sense ssRNA)[13]
coxsackievirus, hepatitis A virus, poliovirus,[4]rhinovirus
 non-enveloped[4]

Coronaviridae
Group IV (positive-sense ssRNA)[14]
Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus[4]
 enveloped[4]

Flaviviridae
Group IV (positive-sense ssRNA)[3][4][15]
Hepatitis C virus,[3]yellow fever virus,[3]dengue virus,[3]West Nile virus,[3]TBE virus[4]
 enveloped[3][4]

Togaviridae
Group IV (positive-sense ssRNA)[3][4][16]
Rubella virus[3]
 enveloped[3][4]

Hepeviridae
Group IV (positive-sense ssRNA)[17]
Hepatitis E virus[4]
 non-enveloped[4][17]

Retroviridae
Group VI (ssRNA-RT)[3][18]
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)[3][4]
 enveloped[3][4]

Orthomyxoviridae
Group V (negative-sense ssRNA)[3][19]
Influenza virus[3][19]
 enveloped[3][19]

Arenaviridae
Group V (negative-sense ssRNA)[20]
Lassa virus[4][20]
 enveloped[4][20]

Bunyaviridae
Group V (negative-sense ssRNA)[21]
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Hantaan virus[4]
 enveloped[4][21]

Filoviridae
Group V (negative-sense ssRNA)[22]
Ebola virus,[22]Marburg virus[22]
 enveloped[4]

Paramyxoviridae
Group V (negative-sense ssRNA)[23]
Measles virus,[3]Mumps virus,[3]Parainfluenza virus,[3]Respiratory syncytial virus,[3][4]
 enveloped[3][23]

Rhabdoviridae
Group V (negative-sense ssRNA)[24]
Rabies virus[3][4]
 enveloped[3][4]
Unassigned[25]
Group V (negative-sense ssRNA)[25]
Hepatitis D[25]
 enveloped[25]

Reoviridae
Group III (dsRNA)[12]
Rotavirus,[12]Orbivirus, Coltivirus, Banna virus
 non-enveloped[4]


Clinical characteristics


The clinical characteristics of viruses may differ substantially among species within the same family:



















































































































































































Type
 Family
Transmission
 Diseases
 Treatment
 Prevention

Adenovirus
Adenoviridae

  • droplet contact[3][9]

  • fecal-oral[3][9]

  • venereal[3]

  • direct eye contact[3]


  • gastroenteritis[3][9]


  • keratoconjunctivitis[3][9]


  • pharyngitis[3]


  • croup[9]


  • pharyngoconjunctival fever[3]


  • pneumonia[9]


  • pneumonia[9]


  • cystitis[9]


 None[3][9]


  • Adenovirus vaccine[9]

  • hand washing

  • covering mouth when coughing or sneezing

  • avoiding close contact with the sick

Coxsackievirus
Picornaviridae

  • fecal-oral[3][26]

  • respiratory[26] droplet contact[3]


  • Hand, foot and mouth disease[27]


  • pleurodynia[26]


  • aseptic meningitis[26]

  • pericarditis

  • myocarditis


 None[3]

  • hand washing

  • covering mouth when coughing/sneezing

  • avoiding contaminated food/water

  • improved sanitation

Epstein–Barr virus
Herpesviridae
  • saliva[3]


  • infectious mononucleosis[3]


  • Burkitt's lymphoma[3]

  • Hodgkin's lymphoma

  • nasopharyngeal carcinoma


 None[3]
  • avoiding close contact with the sick

Hepatitis A virus
Picornaviridae
  • fecal-oral[3][28]

  • acute hepatitis[3][28]
Immunoglobulin (post-exposure prophylaxis)[3]


  • Hepatitis A vaccine[3][28]

  • avoiding contaminated food/water[3]

  • improved sanitation

Hepatitis B virus
Hepadnaviridae

  • bodily fluids[3]

Vertical and sexual[29]


  • acute hepatitis[3][29]


  • chronic hepatitis[29]


  • hepatic cirrhosis[29]


  • hepatocellular carcinoma[29]


  • Lamivudine[3][29]

  • immunoglobulin[3]


  • Adefovir[3]


  • Entecavir[3]


  • Pegylated interferon alfa-2[3]


  • Hepatitis B vaccine[3][29]

  • immunoglobulin (perinatal and post-exposure prophylaxis)[3]

  • avoiding shared needles/syringes

  • safe sex

Hepatitis C virus
Flaviviridae

  • blood[3]

  • sexual contact[3]


  • acute hepatitis[3][30]

  • chronic hepatitis[3]

  • hepatic cirrhosis[3]


  • hepatocellular carcinoma[3]


  • Ribavirin[3][30]


  • Pegylated interferon alfa-2[3]

  • avoiding shared needles/syringes

  • safe sex

Herpes simplex virus, type 1
Herpesviridae

  • direct contact[3][31]

  • saliva[3][31]


  • herpes labialis,[3]cold sores[3][31] - can recur by latency[3]


  • gingivostomatitis in children[3]


  • tonsillitis & pharyngitis in adults[3]


  • keratoconjunctivitis[3]


  • acyclovir[3][31]


  • famciclovir[3][31]


  • foscarnet[3]


  • penciclovir[3]

  • avoiding close contact with lesions

  • safe sex

Herpes simplex virus, type 2
Herpesviridae

  • sexual contact[3][31]

  • vertical transmission[3][31]

  • Skin vesicles, mucosal ulcers,[31] Oral and/or genital[31]
    Can be latent[3]


  • Aseptic meningitis[3]


  • acyclovir[3][31]


  • famciclovir[3][31]


  • foscarnet[3]


  • penciclovir[3]


  • cidofovir[3]

  • avoiding close contact with lesions[3]

  • safe sex[3]

Cytomegalovirus
Herpesviridae


  • vertical transmission[3][31][32]


  • bodily fluids[3]


  • infectious mononucleosis[3]


  • Cytomegalic inclusion disease[3]


  • Premature birth[32]


  • liver, lung and spleen diseases in the newborn[32]


  • Small size at birth[32]


  • Small head size[32]

  • congenital seizures in the newborn[32]


  • ganciclovir[3]


  • cidofovir[3]


  • foscarnet[3]

  • hand washing

  • avoid sharing food and drinks with others

  • safe sex

Human herpesvirus, type 8
Herpesviridae

  • Saliva[31]

  • Sexual[31]


  • Kaposi sarcoma[3]

  • multicentric Castleman disease[3]


  • primary effusion lymphoma[3]


 many in evaluation-stage[3]

  • avoid close contact with lesions

  • safe sex

HIV
Retroviridae

  • sexual contact[3][33]


  • blood[3][33]


  • breast milk[3][33]

  • vertical transmission

  • AIDS[3]
HAART,[3] such as protease inhibitors[33] and reverse-transcriptase inhibitors[33]


  • zidovudine (perinatally)[3]

  • blood product screening[3]

  • safe sex[3]

  • avoiding shared needles/syringes

Influenza virus
Orthomyxoviridae
  • droplet contact[3]


  • influenza[3]

  • (Reye syndrome)[3]


  • amantadine[3][19]


  • rimantadine[3][19]


  • zanamivir[3][19]


  • oseltamivir[3][19]


  • influenza vaccine[3][19]


  • amantadine[3]


  • rimantadine[3]

  • hand washing

  • covering mouth when coughing/sneezing

  • avoiding close contact with the sick

Measles virus
Paramyxoviridae
  • droplet contact[3][23]


  • measles[3][23]


  • postinfectious encephalomyelitis[3]


 None[3]


  • MMR vaccine[3][23]

  • quarantining the sick

  • avoiding contact with the sick

Mumps virus
Paramyxoviridae
  • droplet contact[3][23]

  • mumps[3][23]

 None[3]


  • MMR vaccine[3][23]

  • avoiding close contact with the sick

Human papillomavirus
Papillomaviridae


  • direct contact[3][34]


  • sexual contact[34]

  • vertical transmission


  • hyperplastic epithelial lesions (common, flat, plantar and anogenital warts, laryngeal papillomas, epidermodysplasia verruciformis)[3]

  • Malignancies for some species (cervical carcinoma,[34]squamous cell carcinomas)[3]


  • liquid nitrogen[3]


  • laser vaporization[3]


  • cytotoxic chemicals[3]


  • interferon[3]


  • cidofovir[3]


  • HPV vaccine[3][34]

  • avoiding close contact with lesions[3]

  • safe sex[3]

Parainfluenza virus
Paramyxoviridae
  • droplet contact[3][23]


  • croup[3]


  • pneumonia[3]


  • bronchiolitis[3]


  • common cold[3]


 None[3]

  • hand washing

  • covering mouth when coughing/sneezing

Poliovirus
Picornaviridae
  • fecal-oral[3]

  • poliomyelitis[3]

 None[3]


  • Polio vaccine[3][28]

  • avoiding contaminated food and water

  • improved sanitation

Rabies virus
Rhabdoviridae

  • animal bite[3][24]

  • droplet contact[3]

  • rabies[3] (fatal encephalitis)[24]

 Post-exposure prophylaxis[3]


  • rabies vaccine[24]

  • avoiding rabid animals

Respiratory syncytial virus
Paramyxoviridae

  • droplet contact[3][23]

  • hand to mouth[3]

  • bronchiolitis[3]


  • pneumonia[3]


  • influenza-like syndrome[3]


  • severe bronchiolitis with pneumonia[3]


 (ribavirin)[3]

  • hand washing[3]

  • avoiding close contact with the sick[3]


  • palivizumab in high risk individuals[3]

  • covering mouth when coughing/sneezing

Rubella virus
Togaviridae
  • Respiratory[35] droplet contact[3]


  • congenital rubella[3][35]


  • German measles[3]


 None[3]


  • MMR vaccine[3][35]

  • avoiding close contact with the sick

Varicella-zoster virus
Herpesviridae

  • droplet contact[3]

  • direct contact


  • chickenpox[31]


  • herpes zoster[3]


  • Congenital varicella syndrome[31]

Varicella:



  • acyclovir[3]


  • famciclovir[3]


  • valacyclovir[3]


Zoster:



  • acyclovir[3]


  • famciclovir[3]

Varicella:




  • varicella vaccine[3]


  • varicella-zoster immunoglobulin[3]

  • avoiding close contact with the sick


Zoster:



  • vaccine

  • varicella-zoster immunoglobulin


Notes


In 2010 it was reported that the presence of a tobamovirus (Pepper mild mottle virus) in the stool was associated with clinical disease and a specific immune response.[36] If this association can be confirmed it is the first known case of disease caused by a virus previously considered pathogenic only to plants.



Diagnosis and treatment


Viral disease is usually detected by clinical presentation, for instance severe muscle and joint pains preceding fever, or skin rash and swollen lymph glands.
Laboratory investigation is not directly effective in detecting viral infections, because they do not themselves increase the white blood cell count. Laboratory investigation may be useful in diagnosing associated bacterial infections, however.
Viral infections are commonly of limited duration, so treatment usually consists in reducing the symptoms; antipyretic and analgesic drugs are commonly prescribed.[37]



See also



  • Folding@home

  • List of latent human viral infections

  • Pathogenic bacteria



References





  1. ^ Taylor, M.P.; Kobiler, O.; Enquist, L. W. (2012). "Alphaherpesvirus axon-to-cell spread involves limited virion transmission". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. PNAS. 106: 17046–17051. doi:10.1073/pnas.1212926109. PMC 3479527..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"""""""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}


  2. ^ Hunt, M. "Arboviruses". University of South Carolina School of Medicine.


  3. ^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmbnbobpbqbrbsbtbubvbwbxbybzcacbcccdcecfcgchcicjckclcmcncocpcqcrcsctcucvcwcxcyczdadbdcdddedfdgdhdidjdkdldmdndodpdqdrdsdtdudvdwdxdydzeaebecedeeefegeheiejekelemeneoepeqereseteuevewexeyezfafbfcfdfefffgfhfifjfkflfmfnfofpfqfrfsftfufvfwfxfyfzgagbgcgdgegfggghgi Fisher, Bruce; Harvey, Richard P.; Champe, Pamela C. (2007). Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology. Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews Series. Hagerstown MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 354–366. ISBN 0-7817-8215-5.


  4. ^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalam Table 1 in: Dimitrov, Dimiter S. (2004). "Virus entry: molecular mechanisms and biomedical applications". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2 (2): 109–122. doi:10.1038/nrmicro817. ISSN 1740-1526.


  5. ^ Adams, MJ; Carstens EB (Jul 2012). "Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2012)". Arch. Virol. 157 (7): 1411–22. doi:10.1007/s00705-012-1299-6. PMID 22481600.


  6. ^ Whitley RJ (1996). Baron S; et al., eds. Herpesviruses. in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.


  7. ^ Murray PR, Rosenthal KS, Pfaller MA (2005). Medical Microbiology (5th ed.). Elsevier Mosby. ISBN 978-0-323-03303-9.


  8. ^ abc de Villiers EM, Fauquet C, Broker TR, Bernard HU, zur Hausen H (2004). "Classification of papillomaviruses". Virology. 324 (1): 17–27. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2004.03.033. PMID 15183049.


  9. ^ abcdefghijklm "Polyomavirus". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.


  10. ^ Blaine T. Smith; Brian Luke Seaward. Pharmacology for Nurses. Jones & Bartlett Publishers=year=2014. ISBN 9781449689407.


  11. ^ Murillo A, Vera-Estrella R, Barkla BJ, Méndez E, Arias CF (2015). "Identification of Host Cell Factors Associated with Astrovirus Replication in Caco-2 Cells". J. Virol. 89 (20): 10359–70. doi:10.1128/JVI.01225-15. PMC 4580174. PMID 26246569.


  12. ^ abc Page 273 in: Lennette's Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections (Fourth ed.). CRC Press. 2010. ISBN 9781420084962.


  13. ^ Tuthill, Tobias J.; Groppelli, Elisabetta; Hogle, James M.; Rowlands, David J. (2010). "Picornaviruses". Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 343: 43–89. doi:10.1007/82_2010_37. ISSN 0070-217X. PMC 3018333.


  14. ^ Stapleford, Kenneth A.; Miller, David J. (2010). "Role of Cellular Lipids in Positive-Sense RNA Virus Replication Complex Assembly and Function". Viruses. 2 (5): 1055–1068. doi:10.3390/v2051055. ISSN 1999-4915.


  15. ^ Cook, S.; Moureau, G.; Harbach, R. E.; Mukwaya, L.; Goodger, K.; Ssenfuka, F.; Gould, E.; Holmes, E. C.; de Lamballerie, X. (2009). "Isolation of a novel species of flavivirus and a new strain of Culex flavivirus (Flaviviridae) from a natural mosquito population in Uganda". Journal of General Virology. 90 (11): 2669–2678. doi:10.1099/vir.0.014183-0. ISSN 0022-1317. PMC 2885038.


  16. ^ Simon-Loriere, Etienne; Holmes, Edward C. (2011). "Why do RNA viruses recombine?". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 9 (8): 617–626. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2614. ISSN 1740-1526. PMC 3324781. PMID 21725337.


  17. ^ ab "Hepeviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.


  18. ^ "Retroviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.


  19. ^ abcdefgh "Orthomyxoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.


  20. ^ abc "Arenaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.


  21. ^ ab "Bunyaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.


  22. ^ abc "Filoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.


  23. ^ abcdefghij "Paramyxoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-10.


  24. ^ abcd "Rhabdoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.


  25. ^ abcd "Deltavirus". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.


  26. ^ abcd "Enterovirus". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-12.


  27. ^ Repass GL, Palmer WC, Stancampiano FF (September 2014). "Hand, foot, and mouth disease: Identifying and managing an acute viral syndrome". Cleve Clin J Med. 81 (9): 537–43. doi:10.3949/ccjm.81a.13132. PMID 25183845.


  28. ^ abcd "Picornaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-10.


  29. ^ abcdefg "Hepadnaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-10.


  30. ^ ab "Flaviviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-10.


  31. ^ abcdefghijklmnop "Herpesviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-10.


  32. ^ abcdef "Babies Born with CMV (Congenital CMV Infection)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. April 13, 2017. Retrieved June 17, 2017.
     This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.


  33. ^ abcde "Human immunodeficiency virus 1". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-10.


  34. ^ abcd "Papillomaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-10.


  35. ^ abc "Togaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-10.


  36. ^ Colson P.; Richet H.; Desnues C.; Balique F.; Moal V.; Grob J.; Berbis P.; Lecoq H.; Harlé J.; Berland Y.; Raoult D. (2010). "Pepper Mild Mottle Virus, a Plant Virus Associated with Specific Immune Responses, Fever, Abdominal Pains, and Pruritus in Humans". PLoS ONE. 5 (4): e10041. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010041. PMC 2850318. PMID 20386604.


  37. ^ "Viral Fever". Web Health Centre. Retrieved August 15, 2013.














-

這個網誌中的熱門文章

12.7 cm/40 Type 89 naval gun

圖片
12.7 cm/40 Type 89 naval gun Type 89 gun mounted on Chitose Type Naval gun anti-aircraft gun Place of origin Japan Service history In service 1932–45 Used by Imperial Japanese Navy Wars World War II Production history Designed 1928–32 Produced 1932–45 No.  built ~1500 Variants Type 88 Specifications Mass 3,100 kilograms (6,834 lb) Barrel length 5,080 millimeters (16 ft 8 in) (bore length) Shell Fixed Shell weight 20.9–23.45 kilograms (46.1–51.7 lb) Caliber 12.7-centimeter (5.0 in) Breech horizontal breech block Elevation -8° to +90° [1] Rate of fire 8-14 rounds per minute Muzzle velocity 720–725 meters per second (2,360–2,380 ft/s) Maximum firing range 9,440 meters (30,970 ft) at 90° (AA ceiling) 14,800 meters (48,600 ft) at 45° The 12.7 cm/40 Type 89 naval gun was a Japanese anti-aircraft (AA) gun introduced before World War II. It was the Imperial Japanese Navy's standard heavy AA
閱讀完整內容

Shark

圖片
For other uses, see Shark (disambiguation). Sharks Temporal range: Ludfordian-Present, 425–0 Ma PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N [1] Clockwise from top left: spiny dogfish, Japanese sawshark, whale shark, great white shark, horn shark, frilled shark, scalloped hammerhead and Australian angelshark representing the orders Squaliformes, Pristiophoriformes, Orectolobiformes, Lamniformes, Heterodontiformes, Hexanchiformes, Carcharhiniformes and Squatiniformes respectively. Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Chondrichthyes Subclass: Elasmobranchii Infraclass: Euselachii Superorder: Selachimorpha Orders Carcharhiniformes Heterodontiformes Hexanchiformes Lamniformes Orectolobiformes Pristiophoriformes Squaliformes Squatiniformes † Cladoselachiformes † Hybodontiformes † Symmoriida † Xenacanthida (Xenacantiformes) † Elegestolepis † = extinct Synonyms Pleurotremata Sharks
閱讀完整內容

Wiciokrzew

圖片
Wiciokrzew, suchodrzew Morfologia (wiciokrzew pospolity) Systematyka [1] Domena eukarionty Królestwo rośliny Klad rośliny naczyniowe Klad rośliny nasienne Klasa okrytonasienne Klad astrowe Rząd szczeciowce Rodzina przewiertniowate Rodzaj wiciokrzew Nazwa systematyczna Lonicera L. Sp. Pl. 173. 1 Mai 1753 Typ nomenklatoryczny Lonicera caprifolium L. [2] Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Hasło w Wikisłowniku Kwiaty suchodrzewu pospolitego Owoce suchodrzewu pospolitego Kwiaty wiciokrzewu pomorskiego Kwiaty wiciokrzewu przewiercienia Wiciokrzew , suchodrzew ( Lonicera L.) – rodzaj roślin wieloletnich należący do rodziny przewiertniowatych ( Caprifoliaceae ). Rośliny zielne i pnące nazywane są wiciokrzewami, natomiast krzewy i niewielkie drzewa – suchodrzewami. Rodzaj liczy około 180 gatunków szeroko rozprzestrzenionych na całej półkuli północnej [3] [4]
閱讀完整內容